Rhetoric
Seyed Ali Sina Rakhshandehmand
Abstract
IntroductionThe rhetorical figure of istikhdām (employment) is among the most subtle and contested semantic devices in classical rhetoric: a figure that operates at the threshold of word and meaning, and at the intersection of reference and resonance, producing an artful play of polysemy. First systematized ...
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IntroductionThe rhetorical figure of istikhdām (employment) is among the most subtle and contested semantic devices in classical rhetoric: a figure that operates at the threshold of word and meaning, and at the intersection of reference and resonance, producing an artful play of polysemy. First systematized in Arabic rhetoric and later received in Persian and Indo-Islamic traditions—and compared in English rhetorical studies with related phenomena such as syllepsis—this device has been defined in multiple, sometimes overlapping and sometimes conflicting ways. Such definitional plurality attests to the vitality of rhetorical thought, yet it has also obscured the boundaries of the figure, complicated its distinction from neighboring devices (e.g., īhām/double entendre, tawriya/equivocation, and general polysemy), and thus made a comparative re-examination both timely and necessary.Within the Arabic tradition, rhetoricians such as Usāma ibn Munqidh, Ibn Mālik, al-Khaṭīb al-Qazwīnī, and later commentators approached istikhdām from distinct angles: some emphasized lexical homonymy and semantic transfer; others foregrounded syntactic mechanism and pronominal reference; still others sought to integrate syntactic configuration with semantic function into a coherent analytical framework. In the Persian rhetorical tradition—especially from the Safavid period onward—definitions largely echo Arabic formulations and tend toward pronoun-centered analyses. By contrast, later Persian and Indo-Islamic scholars exhibit a marked tendency to broaden the scope of operative clues, diversify sentential patterns, and advance language-oriented interpretations that bring istikhdām into proximity with īhām, ellipsis at the surface level, and polysemy. Notably, innovative proposals in the Indo-Islamic tradition—above all Āzād Bilgrāmī’s theory of ṣarf al-khazāna—open new interpretive horizons by theorizing the simultaneous activation of multiple meanings and enabling non-pronominal readings of the device. MethodologyAdopting a descriptive-analytical approach and a comparative method, the present study compiles, classifies, and systematically formulates definitions of istikhdām across Arabic, English, Persian (Iranian), and Indo-Islamic sources. It examines the principal criteria used to identify the figure and compares the theoretical approaches developed across these rhetorical traditions. FindingsThe study demonstrates that three foundational components—(1) a lexeme with shared or multiple meanings, (2) semantic distribution mediated by contextual clues, and (3) syntactic reference, especially via pronouns—have historically functioned as the principal criteria for identifying the device. The study also identifies differences in the scope of definitions, the types of clues that guide interpretation, and the mechanisms through which multiple meanings are activated. Pronoun-centered definitions offer precision and ease of identification, whereas clue-based expansive definitions provide broader coverage but face challenges in maintaining clear conceptual boundaries with adjacent rhetorical figures.Accordingly, the shared core across definitions may be articulated as “the simultaneous activation of more than one intended meaning from a single lexical form, supported by distributing clues and a clear referential mechanism.” Discussion and ConclusionThe findings suggest that divergences among definitions stem less from substantive theoretical contradiction than from differences in analytical level (lexical, syntactic, semantic, and contextual), in the types of clues that guide interpretation, and in the mechanisms by which multiple meanings are activated. The study critiques expansive modern readings that risk conflating istikhdām with īhām, syllepsis, or general polysemy, and seeks to redraw its theoretical boundaries with greater precision.
Rhetoric
Tooran Razmjoo; Fataneh Rostami
Abstract
Introduction
Ahmad Mahmoud is one of Iran’s most prominent contemporary writers, skillfully employing imagery to craft a compelling and impactful style. The novel *Zamin-e Sukhteh* (Scorched Earth) offers a harrowing account of the Iran-Iraq War and its devastating impact on the lives of ordinary ...
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Introduction
Ahmad Mahmoud is one of Iran’s most prominent contemporary writers, skillfully employing imagery to craft a compelling and impactful style. The novel *Zamin-e Sukhteh* (Scorched Earth) offers a harrowing account of the Iran-Iraq War and its devastating impact on the lives of ordinary people—particularly the lower classes—in Ahvaz. What distinguishes Mahmoud’s works is his social commitment and narrative authenticity. Focusing on simile and metonymy, this research uncovers the hidden layers of his writing style.
Key Questions: (1) What is the structure of similes in the novel *Zamin-e Sukhteh*? (2) How are the novel’s metonymies categorized in terms of clarity and signification? (3) What role does imagery play in depicting the atmosphere of war?
Previous scholarship has addressed characterization, regional elements, and onomastics in this novel; however, there is no independent study dedicated to its use of imagery. The present study aims to fill this gap.
Methodology
This is a descriptive-analytical study based on library research. The primary source is the text *Zamin-e Sukhteh* (Mahmoud, 1982), and the theoretical framework draws upon Shamisa (2004), Kazazi (1989), and Jorjani (2010). The qualitative analysis relies on a close reading of the text to identify, categorize, and analyze similes and allusions.
Similes are classified based on the explicit mention of the point of resemblance (*mufassal* vs. *mujmal*), the presence of a simile particle (*mursal* vs. *mu'akkad*), and their structure (simple, qualified, or compound); the concept of the "angle of simile" is employed to assess creativity. Allusions are categorized based on the intended meaning (referring to a noun, adjective, verb, or verbal noun), the degree of explicitness (hint, implication, symbol, or innuendo), and the ease of comprehension (proximate vs. remote). The influence of the wartime atmosphere and colloquial language is also examined.
Findings
The atmosphere of war plays a decisive role in shaping the similes, which are predominantly epic in nature. Examples include the sound of anti-aircraft fire likened to thunder and the roar of airplanes to a thunderclap. These similes are typically classified as *mufrad* (simple/single-term), *mufassal* (detailed/explicit), and *mursal* (unabbreviated), as both the point of resemblance (e.g., "roar") and the particle of comparison (e.g., "like") are explicitly stated.
The angle of comparison is often narrow and immediate, making the connection between the two elements of the simile easy to grasp; this characteristic reflects the use of colloquial and unadorned (or even commonplace) similes, aligning with the author's realistic style. Examples include: "The humid heat has settled over the city like a nightmare-demon," "Khomeini Street was always as bright as day," "Mohammad the mechanic [moved] like a shooting star," "Rumors gnaw at the townspeople like a canker," "Phantoms chase [enemy planes] like sparrowhawks after flies," "Mina has turned as yellow as straw," "The sun [blazes] like a furnace," and "People swirl about like a shapeless mass." Colloquial similes reflecting the language of the marketplace and the street also enhance the story's plausibility: "I toss and turn like a feverish dog" and "He has seated the passengers side-by-side like date pits." Some epic similes directly reference battle scenes, such as "people falling to the ground like autumn leaves due to the explosions."
Although simple and qualified similes constitute the majority of the imagery, the author has occasionally created novel images using compound similes—such as likening the lights of the Mahtabi Bridge to lanterns suspended from the sky, or comparing the state of "Khaled" on the verge of martyrdom to "an acquaintance cast into strangeness" and "a stranger seeking familiarity." The novel’s metonymies are primarily colloquial and rooted in folk culture; they belong to the "near" (*qarib*) category and the "gesture" (*ima*) sub-type, typically signifying an action or verbal noun. Examples include: *lulehang-e ab bordan* (carrying a water pitcher), implying the possession of prestige, power, or wealth—a "remote" (*ba'id*) metonymy of the *talvih* (allusion) type; *be zamin-e garm khordan* (hitting the hot ground), implying misfortune and despair—a "near" metonymy of the *ima* (gesture) type; and *dast az pa deraztar bargashtan* (returning with one's hand longer than one's foot), implying failure or lack of success—also a "near" metonymy of the *ima* type. In terms of signification, most are "near" metonymies of the *ima* type, representing an action or verbal noun.
Discussion and Conclusion
The findings align with the general understanding of Mahmoud’s style as a social realist writer. The frequent use of epic similes and colloquial allusions reflects the impact of the wartime atmosphere and the author’s commitment to portraying the lived experiences of ordinary people. The simplicity and accessibility of the similes harmonize with a realist aesthetic; they represent not a lack of artistry, but a stylistic choice prioritizing clarity, emotional impact, and authenticity. Compound similes, though few in number, reveal the author’s capacity for poetic imagination during moments of emotional or physical crisis. The allusions are functional in nature, conveying character traits, social relationships, and cultural values.
Ahmad Mahmoud is a prominent contemporary author, and the majority of his works fall within the genre of social realism. *Zamin-e Sukhteh* (Scorched Earth), which deals with the Iran-Iraq War, portrays the suffering and anguish of a people who resisted with valor. The author has enriched the work through his use of imagery. Findings indicate that the atmosphere of war has led to a predominance of epic similes. Structurally, the similes are categorized into three types: simple (*mofrad*), qualified (*moghayyad*), and compound (*morakkab*); similes qualified by a genitive modifier (*ezafe*) appear most frequently, while those qualified by an adverbial state (*hal*) appear least frequently. In terms of their nature, most similes are colloquial, simple, and devoid of complex imagery. Regarding sentence structure, since both the point of resemblance (*vajh-e shabah*) and the particle of comparison (*adat*) are explicitly stated in most instances, they are classified as detailed (*mofassal*) and explicit (*morsal*). The metaphors used are primarily transparent and suggestive (*ima*), often taking the form of verbs or verbal nouns; these characteristics reflect the deep connection between Ahmad Mahmoud’s language and the folk culture and colloquial speech of the people of southern Iran, thereby enhancing the work's realism.
Rhetoric
Fatemeh Elhami; Shahla Khalilollahi; Fatemeh Gharloghi
Abstract
Introduction
Since the late 1950s, metaphor has occupied a prominent position in linguistic studies (Borsheh, 1998: 301). The Western tradition of studying metaphor dates back to Aristotle, who regarded metaphor as a technique for artistic creation. He believed that metaphor is exclusive to literary ...
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Introduction
Since the late 1950s, metaphor has occupied a prominent position in linguistic studies (Borsheh, 1998: 301). The Western tradition of studying metaphor dates back to Aristotle, who regarded metaphor as a technique for artistic creation. He believed that metaphor is exclusive to literary language and, therefore, should be examined among literary devices and tropes. This represents the classical view of metaphor, a perspective that remains prevalent among us to this day. Another perspective on metaphor dates back to the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, known as the romantic view, reflecting the prevailing insight of that era. Under this view, metaphor was not limited to literary language; rather, it was considered an essential component of both language and thought for representing the external world. Metaphor served as evidence of the role of imagination in conceptualization and reasoning; consequently, no distinction was made between ordinary language and literary language (Sasani, 2004: 16-19).
Methodology
Utilizing library resources and exploring theoretical discourses on conceptual metaphors, this descriptive-analytical study examines conceptual metaphors centered on the emotion of "sadness" in Saadi's ghazals. The research data were extracted from four hundred of Saadi's ghazals and analyzed through various mappings of sadness across the domains of humans, nature, animals, objects, senses, and food.
Findings
Through an extensive analysis of 400 selected ghazals by Saadi, it was found that the word "grief" occurs approximately 117 times. Notably, only about 15 instances use the word in its literal sense of sorrow, while the majority are highlighted through conceptual metaphors. These metaphors conceptualize the abstract notion of grief by drawing from domains such as Humans, Objects, Senses, Nature, and Animals, manifesting in both positive and negative semantic polarities. Another significant finding, based on Lakoff and Johnson's classification of conceptual metaphors, is that structural metaphors predominate across all domains, significantly outnumbering ontological metaphors. Orientational metaphors, however, were observed only once.
Discussion and Conclusion
The Conceptual Metaphor of Grief
Grief is one of the various human inner emotions, whose intensity fluctuates depending on an individual's internal and external states. Some psychologists argue that grief negates the pleasure of life; since attaining any pleasure serves as a prerequisite for the human drive toward higher pleasures, humans are perpetually accompanied by grief. However, grief is not always a source of distress and depression. From a mystical (Sufi) perspective, grief is an inherent companion to humanity, such that the seeker (salek) observes it throughout all mystical experiences. According to this view, the path of spiritual progression (suluk) is paved through the understanding of grief; if the seeker manages it effectively, grief becomes a valuable treasure. Consequently, grief manifests in two forms: a base, worldly form, and a praised, sanctified form (Toghyani & Ajieh, 2013: 2-3).
In this study, based on the dual nature of grief (positive and negative), the conceptual metaphors of grief in Saadi's ghazals have been categorized into the domains of Humans, Food, Senses, Plants, Animals, Objects, and Nature. Each of these domains is further subdivided into smaller sub-domains. In certain instances, the metaphors of grief are not amenable to objective methodological analysis and fall into the domain of the abstract.
The Positive Aspect of the Conceptual Metaphor of Grief in Saadi's Poetry
Although grief possesses an inherently negative essence, it sometimes stems from the lover's longing and desire to reach the Beloved (whether spiritual or earthly). This emotion—this pain and sorrow—serves as a catalyst for the lover's spiritual transcendence and the attainment of their ultimate goal. Therefore, enduring grief and the hardships resulting from it does not merely cause suffering and torment for the lover; rather, it is experienced as something sweet and pleasant.
The Human Domain
Attributing human qualities and characteristics to non-human entities is a significant issue that has long fascinated humanity. It can be considered one of the most important phenomena in describing abstract and mental concepts, paving the way for the recognition and understanding of metaphorical concepts. Attributes and characteristics such as friendship and leadership are human actions and qualities; through anthropomorphism, the poet links correspondences between the source and target domains, thereby assisting the reader in decoding and achieving a better understanding.
Lakoff and Johnson classify such metaphors as ontological metaphors. They argue that our experience of physical bodies and substances provides a foundation for perception that goes beyond mere orientation. Understanding experiences through objects and substances allows us to select parts of our experiences and treat them as distinct entities or substances, independent of a unified whole. Our experience of physical objects (especially our own bodies) provides a foundation for a vast and diverse range of ontological metaphors. These metaphors serve as windows through which we view events, activities, emotions, ideas, and so on, as if they were entities or substances. Therefore, ontological metaphors fulfill various purposes, and the diverse types of these metaphors reflect the various goals achieved. The scope of ontological metaphors is immense for such purposes; for instance, they can be used for reference, measurement, identifying aspects, identifying causes, expressing goals and motivations, etc. (Lakoff & Johnson, 2016: 49-51). Anthropomorphism enables the understanding of a wide spectrum of experiences—or in other words, non-human entities—based on human motivations and activities. Saadi has employed this type of conceptual metaphor in his treatment of the subject of "sorrow."
Additionally, the study demonstrates that in Saadi's poetry, grief is not only conceptualized through tangible and sensory imagery but also through abstract imagery. For example, grief is mapped onto concepts such as thought, joy, or calamity, which require mystical insight and a perception that transcends the five senses to be fully understood. This suggests that mystical and abstract mappings are present in his poetry, where abstract concepts of grief are expressed through other abstract frameworks. Ultimately, by employing conceptual metaphors, Saadi demonstrates his profound intellect and masterful poetic skill. He artistically transforms his emotional perceptions of grief into tangible and perceptible imagery, thereby enhancing his ability to convey complex meanings and profound emotions to his audience.
Rhetoric
Hossein Taheri
Abstract
Mystical language, contrary to the view that regards it as autonomous or homogeneous, emerges in texts such as ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn by Rūzbahān Baqlī Shīrāzī through the intersection and coexistence of heterogeneous and diverse discourses. This language draws simultaneously on the Qur’an ...
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Mystical language, contrary to the view that regards it as autonomous or homogeneous, emerges in texts such as ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn by Rūzbahān Baqlī Shīrāzī through the intersection and coexistence of heterogeneous and diverse discourses. This language draws simultaneously on the Qur’an and Hadith, jurisprudence and theology, literature and popular culture, the mystic’s personal experience, and Sufi terminology. It can therefore be argued that, in certain instances, mystical language constitutes a site where distinct languages, with different historical backgrounds and systems of valuation, coexist and interact, with each potentially reshaping the meaning of the others. The significance of this issue becomes more apparent when such coexistence extends beyond vocabulary and the terminology associated with each linguistic domain to the discursive level and to different semantic horizons, thereby engaging the deeper layers of the text.
ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn, which possesses a distinctive mode of mystical writing, does not employ a straightforward or homogeneous language. Indeed, an understanding of the text depends, to a considerable extent, on recognizing the discourses from which Rūzbahān’s language draws. The text therefore incorporates Qur’anic language, mystical terminology, juridical expressions, shathic discourse, narrative forms of speech, and even certain words that may at first appear incompatible with or remote from the mystical domain. Consequently, when a juridical expression occurs alongside shathic language, or when a concept derived from everyday experience or commonly accepted usage is employed to describe a sacred experience, the source of meaning can no longer be attributed solely to the original position of that element. Once incorporated into Rūzbahān’s language, such an element enters a new network and, in relation to other voices and discourses, acquires a different or, at the very least, multilayered meaning.
Methodology
This study adopts an analytical-interpretive approach based on purposive sample selection, and its theoretical framework is grounded in two key concepts in Mikhail Bakhtin’s theory of discourse, namely dialogism and heteroglossia. The units of analysis consist of selected passages from ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn in which more than one discursive horizon participates in the construction of mystical meaning. Accordingly, the basis for selecting the samples is not merely the presence of words or expressions belonging to different domains, but rather the relationships that these elements establish with one another within the textual context.
The selected passages were chosen according to three criteria. First, passages in which distinct social or epistemic discourses, such as Qur’anic, juridical, mystical, shathic, and other identifiable forms of discourse, coexist within a shared discursive space. Second, passages in which interaction, displacement, opposition, or semantic tension emerges among these discourses, such that their presence is not merely evidentiary or ornamental. Third, passages in which Rūzbahān’s utterance takes shape in relation to a preceding utterance or to another voice, so that its meaning cannot be fully understood without considering this dialogical relationship. Accordingly, the selected samples represent instances in which the mechanisms under investigation can be observed with the greatest clarity, rather than necessarily being passages characterized by the greatest lexical diversity.
Findings
For a systematic and coherent analysis, eight passages were selected from ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn that display dialogic and heteroglossic features. All eight passages were examined, analyzed, and interpreted according to the same methodological approach. The analysis first identified and examined the multiple discourses present in each selected passage. Each passage contains several discourses, some of which occasionally come into conflict because of their different origins; once brought together within the mystical text, these discourses may enter into opposition or semantic tension with one another. The analysis then turned to the different voices present in the text, examining the nature of each voice and its relationship to the corresponding discourse. Among the voices identified were those of the lover, the mystics, the ascetics, gamblers, and merchants. Metaphors and symbols were also identified and interpreted from the perspective of Bakhtinian heteroglossia and dialogism.
Conclusion and Discussion
The analysis of the selected passages shows that Rūzbahān’s language goes beyond the mere transmission of mystical experience and becomes a site where multiple voices, contrasting tones, heterogeneous discourses, and symbols and metaphors originating from different domains intersect and come into tension. From this perspective, ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn offers a notable example of a text that moves beyond homogeneous and uniform linguistic forms and adopts a structure in which the coexistence of different languages is visible at the surface, while tensions among these languages operate beneath it.
The analysis of the selected passages further demonstrates that, in this work, Rūzbahān brings together the shathic language of the mystics, poetic and symbolic language, colloquial tones, informal modes of expression, and highly elaborate rhetorical forms. This coexistence of voices not only enriches the aesthetic texture of the text but also elevates mystical experience from the level of individual and subjective experience to an intertextual level. By incorporating diverse vocabularies, tones, and styles into the mystical texture of his work, Rūzbahān thus creates an interdiscursive structure that can be effectively illuminated through a Bakhtinian analysis of heteroglossia.
The analysis also reveals that Rūzbahān’s mystical language possesses a form of discursive dynamism that prevents it from being confined to rigid and monologic forms. For this reason, ʿAbhar al-ʿĀshiqīn can be understood as a multilayered and interdisciplinary text in which philosophy, rhetoric, poetry, and mysticism interact with one another. This feature demonstrates that one-dimensional readings cannot fully account for the complexity of the text.
It can therefore be concluded that mystical language, contrary to the common assumption, is not necessarily uniform or homogeneous; rather, it can serve as a site where multiple voices and heterogeneous discourses converge, interact, and enter into dialogue.
Rhetoric
Fatemeh Amirabadifarahani; Ahmad Khatam
Abstract
Introduction and Statement of the Problem
The Holy Qur’an occupies a fundamental position in the formation and development of mystical thought and Persian mystical literature. A significant part of the theoretical and practical foundations of Islamic mysticism, particularly in mystical prose works, ...
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Introduction and Statement of the Problem
The Holy Qur’an occupies a fundamental position in the formation and development of mystical thought and Persian mystical literature. A significant part of the theoretical and practical foundations of Islamic mysticism, particularly in mystical prose works, has been explained and supported through references to Qur’anic verses and statements. Mystics have not used Qur’anic verses merely as evidence to support their arguments; rather, by drawing on their linguistic, rhetorical, semantic, and exegetical capacities, they have employed them to represent and elucidate mystical concepts. Therefore, examining the ways in which Qur’anic verses appear in mystical texts can reveal different dimensions of the relationship between the Qur’an, mystical thought, and Persian prose.
Among such works, al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya (The Qushayri Risāla) is one of the most important mystical prose works of the fifth century AH and one of the valuable legacies of Khurasani Sufism. Qur’anic verses and religious statements occur throughout the work with considerable frequency and in diverse forms. The significance of this work derives not only from its position in the history of Islamic mysticism, but also from the fact that its author, Abū al-Qāsim ʿAbd al-Karīm ibn Hawāzin al-Qushayrī, was himself a prominent mystic and Qur’anic exegete. In his works, particularly Laṭāʾif al-Ishārāt, a mystical approach to the Qur’an occupies a central position. Accordingly, examining the Qur’anic citations in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya can provide a clearer picture of the relationship between the mystical structure of the work and Qushayrī’s approach to Qur’anic verses.
In light of this necessity, the present study quantitatively and qualitatively examines Qur’anic citations in the Persian translation of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya. The main question of the research is to determine the extent to which Qushayrī employs Qur’anic verses in this work and the purposes and methods through which he incorporates them into his text. On this basis, two major functions are identified for Qur’anic citations. The first is their rhetorical and literary function, in which verses or portions of verses are employed for embellishing and strengthening discourse, seeking blessing, harmonizing the citation with the context, persuading the audience, and supporting the author’s claims. The second is their analytical and exegetical function, in which a verse or part of it provides a basis for interpretation, esoteric reading, and the presentation of the author’s mystical perspective.
Research Objectives
The main objective of this study is to identify and explain the patterns of Qur’anic usage in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya and to provide a systematic account of the rhetorical and exegetical functions of these citations. Accordingly, the study seeks to determine the frequency of Qur’anic citations, classify the forms in which verses appear in the text from both formal and semantic perspectives, and demonstrate how Qushayrī draws upon the potential of Qur’anic verses to express mystical concepts and spiritual stations. Another objective is to examine the position of the esoteric ijtihādī method of interpretation among the various methods of interpreting and explaining Qur’anic verses found in the work.
Research Methodology
In terms of its objective, this is a descriptive study, while methodologically it is based on content analysis. To achieve the research objectives, the study first examines the theoretical literature and previous research in order to establish a deductive framework for classifying the uses of Qur’anic verses in mystical prose. On the basis of this framework, Qur’anic usage is divided into two broad categories: rhetorical usage and analytical usage.
Rhetorical usage is further classified according to the degree of Qur’anic presence in the text into lexical citation and propositional citation. Propositional citations are examined in forms such as quotation, incorporation, allusion, and related rhetorical techniques. Analytical usage is divided into two forms, direct and indirect or reversed interpretation. Within these categories, various exegetical approaches are considered, including purely narrational, purely esoteric, Qur’an-based ijtihādī, narrational ijtihādī, literary ijtihādī, scientific ijtihādī, comprehensive ijtihādī, and esoteric ijtihādī interpretation.
The statistical population of the study consists of the Persian translation of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya, edited by Mojtaba Mohabbati. The unit of analysis is the Qur’anic expressions and propositions employed in the text, while the contextual unit is the sentence or passage related to the cited verse and the mystical idea under discussion. Thus, in order to interpret each citation accurately, the researcher does not limit the analysis to the Qur’anic expression itself, but also considers the textual context preceding and following the verse and examines its function within the overall structure of the work. The simultaneous use of quantitative and qualitative content analysis makes it possible not only to determine the frequency of different types of citation but also to investigate the integration of Qur’anic verses into mystical prose and the methods through which these verses are interpreted and reinterpreted.
Research Findings
The quantitative analysis shows that the Persian translation of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya contains a total of 221 Qur’anic citations. Of these, some have primarily rhetorical functions, while others have analytical and exegetical functions. In the field of rhetorical usage, only two cases of lexical citation were identified, that is, instances in which one or two Qur’anic words appear within Qushayrī’s prose. By contrast, there are 75 cases of propositional citation, in which part or all of a Qur’anic verse appears in the text. These citations occur predominantly in the form of quotation and incorporation. In some instances, Qushayrī presents an entire verse together with its translation, while in others he incorporates only a portion of a Qur’anic expression or proposition into his discourse. Thus, the rhetorical use of Qur’anic material in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya is primarily based on the presence of Qur’anic propositions, whereas lexical citation occurs with considerably lower frequency.
A qualitative examination of the rhetorical citations demonstrates that Qur’anic verses are incorporated naturally and harmoniously into the context of Qushayrī’s mystical prose. Their purpose is not merely the superficial embellishment of language. Rather, the verses are employed to support arguments, persuade the audience, provide blessing, strengthen the semantic force of the discourse, and establish a connection between mystical teachings and religious authority. In some cases, the presence of a Qur’anic word or expression is so deeply integrated into the prose that a reader unfamiliar with the Qur’an may find it difficult to recognize its Qur’anic origin. This characteristic demonstrates Qushayrī’s mastery of Qur’anic language and his ability to integrate Qur’anic elements into the structure of mystical prose.
In the field of analytical usage, the findings demonstrate that Qushayrī frequently employs Qur’anic verses to interpret and explain mystical concepts. In the category of direct interpretation, 70 cases of esoteric ijtihādī interpretation were identified. In addition, 3 cases of Qur’an-based ijtihādī interpretation and 18 cases of narrational ijtihādī interpretation were observed. Other interpretive types in this category were either absent or occurred only very rarely. In the category of indirect or reversed interpretation, 51 cases of esoteric ijtihādī interpretation and one case of narrational ijtihādī interpretation were identified.
Accordingly, the most prominent exegetical characteristic of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya is the predominance of the esoteric ijtihādī method. Through this method, Qushayrī draws upon mystical principles, spiritual unveiling, and the perception of the inner layers of Qur’anic verses in order to employ Qur’anic concepts in explaining mystical states and spiritual stations.
With regard to the frequency of Qur’anic surahs, the verses employed by Qushayrī are selected from a broad range of the Qur’an. In total, citations from 66 surahs are found in the Persian translation of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya. The surahs of al-Baqara and al-Aʿrāf, with 11 citations each, have the highest frequency. They are followed by al-Tawba, Yūsuf, and al-Naḥl, each with 8 citations. The surahs of Ṣād and al-Zumar each contain 7 citations, while Āl ʿImrān, al-Māʾida, al-Isrāʾ, and al-Kahf, among others, also have relatively significant frequencies. This broad distribution demonstrates that Qushayrī did not depend on a limited selection of Qur’anic verses in expressing his mystical ideas; rather, he drew upon a wide range of Qur’anic themes.
Analysis and Interpretation of the Findings
The findings demonstrate that the presence of the Qur’an in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya is not merely decorative or rhetorical; rather, the Qur’an also plays a substantive and epistemological role in Qushayrī’s mystical thought. On the one hand, through quotation and incorporation, Qushayrī strengthens the connection between his mystical discourse and the sacred text. On the other hand, through the interpretation and esoteric reading of Qur’anic verses, he rereads Qur’anic concepts within the framework of his mystical system. The predominance of esoteric ijtihādī interpretation is particularly significant, since it demonstrates that Qushayrī does not restrict himself to merely quoting a verse or explaining its apparent meaning; rather, in numerous cases, he pays attention to the inner and deeper semantic layers of the verses.
This approach is consistent with Qushayrī’s position as a mystic exegete and the author of Laṭāʾif al-Ishārāt. His exegetical experience and knowledge are also reflected in this work, causing Qur’anic citations in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya to become, in many cases, the starting point for an exegetical and mystical discussion. Qushayrī’s dominant pattern of presenting his arguments is also noteworthy. In many cases, after citing a Qur’anic verse, a Prophetic narration, and sayings of Sufi masters and mystical figures, he presents his own interpretation and subsequently explains, elaborates, and synthesizes the material in order to clarify his intended meaning. From this perspective, Qur’anic verses in the Risāla are not isolated textual elements but active components in the structure of argumentation and the articulation of mystical thought.
At the same time, an examination of the esoteric ijtihādī interpretations demonstrates that Qushayrī does not consistently resort to purely esoteric interpretation. The limited presence of purely esoteric interpretation, together with the greater use of esoteric ijtihādī interpretation, may indicate a degree of caution in presenting mystical interpretations. In fact, the esoteric readings found in the Risāla are often presented within a relatively structured framework and remain connected to the meaning of the verse and the mystical context of the discussion. Therefore, interpretation in this work should not be understood simply as a departure from the apparent meaning of Qur’anic verses. Rather, in many instances, it represents a movement from the apparent to the inner meaning and an attempt to discover semantic layers compatible with Qushayrī’s mystical system.
Conclusion
The findings of this study demonstrate that Qur’anic citations in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya have two principal functions: rhetorical and analytical, both of which contribute to the formation of the prose structure and mystical thought of the work. At the rhetorical level, Qur’anic verses are employed to embellish and strengthen discourse, seek blessing, support claims, and persuade the audience. At this level, propositional citation, with 75 cases, is considerably more frequent than lexical citation, with only two cases, while quotation and incorporation constitute the dominant forms of the presence of Qur’anic propositions in the text. At the analytical level, a substantial portion of the citations is used to interpret and explain Qur’anic verses and connect them with mystical concepts.
The most important finding of the study is the predominance of the esoteric ijtihādī method of interpretation among the exegetical approaches employed in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya. Esoteric ijtihādī interpretation occurs in 70 direct cases and 51 indirect or reversed cases. This demonstrates that Qushayrī does not merely employ Qur’anic verses rhetorically; he also uses them as a means of explaining and deepening mystical concepts. Alongside this method, the presence of Qur’an-based ijtihādī and narrational interpretation, as well as a limited number of other approaches, indicates that Qushayrī’s exegetical method is not entirely one-dimensional and that, in some cases, he combines elements of different interpretive approaches.
Overall, al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya may be regarded as a text in which the Qur’an is actively present on three levels: language, rhetoric, and meaning. Qur’anic verses sometimes become integrated into the lexical and aesthetic structure of the prose; at other times, they function as evidence and authority for the author’s arguments; and at a deeper level, they provide a basis for mystical interpretation and esoteric reading. From this perspective, Qushayrī’s Qur’anic citations are not peripheral elements but an integral part of the meaning-making mechanism of the work. Moreover, the structured nature of Qushayrī’s esoteric interpretations demonstrates that his mystical engagement with the Qur’an is, in many cases, based on an attempt to discover the inner layers of Qur’anic meaning within the epistemological framework of Sufism. Consequently, the study of Qur’anic citations in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya can contribute not only to a better understanding of the style and structure of this work but also to a more precise understanding of the relationship between the Qur’an, mystical exegesis, and the formation of Persian mystical prose in the fifth century AH.
From the perspective of discourse structure, Qur’anic citations in al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya also play an important role in establishing a connection between the theoretical concepts of Sufism and authoritative religious evidence. Qushayrī frequently introduces a Qur’anic verse after presenting a mystical concept or issue in order to substantiate and strengthen his argument. He then employs Prophetic traditions, the sayings of Sufi masters, and his own explanations to clarify and complete the intended meaning. Consequently, Qur’anic verses in the Risāla do not merely function as independent pieces of evidence; rather, they acquire their meaning within a network of Qur’anic, narrational, and mystical evidence. This method creates a coherent connection between the Qur’anic text and Sufi experience and thought and provides mystical concepts with a religious foundation. The diversity of citation methods, ranging from the quotation of an entire verse to the use of a phrase or portion of a verse, also demonstrates that Qushayrī adjusts the degree and form of Qur’anic presence according to the purpose of each discussion. Therefore, Qur’anic citations may be regarded as one of the important elements in the formation of the argumentative and semantic structure of al-Risāla al-Qushayriyya, simultaneously enhancing the authority of the author’s discourse and providing a basis for mystical interpretations of Qur’anic concepts.
Rhetoric
Akbar Shamloo; Yahya Ataei
Abstract
Introduction
Interrogative sentences in Hafez’s ghazals are dynamic tools for communicating emotions and rhetorical intent rather than simple inquiries. Due to multiple interpretations, secondary meanings of interrogatives remain a subject of debate. This study moves beyond traditional, static ...
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Introduction
Interrogative sentences in Hafez’s ghazals are dynamic tools for communicating emotions and rhetorical intent rather than simple inquiries. Due to multiple interpretations, secondary meanings of interrogatives remain a subject of debate. This study moves beyond traditional, static approaches by analyzing Hafez’s interrogatives at the locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary levels, using Speech Act Theory and the framework of cohesion. The research investigates how these speech acts operate within different contexts and their specific roles in the poem’s structure. The central hypothesis posits that Hafez’s questions are functional tools that interact with textual cohesion to achieve rhetorical goals, such as expressing helplessness, criticism, or surrender. By applying modern linguistic frameworks, this study clarifies the semantic mechanisms of these questions, thereby providing a more rigorous method for interpreting rhetorical strategies in classical Persian poetry.
Methodology
This study uses a descriptive-analytical approach to examine interrogatives in Hafez’s ghazals. The method involves extracting and categorizing questions, then analyzing their contextual meanings using Speech Act Theory and the framework of cohesion. Previous research has explored the rhetorical and stylistic aspects of these questions, focusing mainly on classifying secondary meanings or general speech acts. However, this is the first study to analyze Hafez’s interrogatives across three specific levels: locutionary, illocutionary, and perlocutionary. Unlike existing studies that overlook the role of textual cohesion, this research provides a comprehensive analysis of how context generates meaning within the structure of the poem.
Findings
This section discusses the functional role of interrogative structures in Hafez’s poetry. By applying Speech Act Theory and Halliday’s Metafunctions, we demonstrate that these structures are not information-seeking inquiries. Instead, they are strategic tools for managing ambiguity and expressing forbidden or complex rhetorical acts. The research identifies 29 interrogative types. These categorize into four main groups: act-based (protest, rebuke, prohibition), emotive (regret, wonder, confusion), philosophical-interpretive (confirmation, explanation), and communicative (encouragement, request). Analysis of the textual metafunction confirms that Hafez uses these questions to maintain structural cohesion within the ghazal. He transforms static questions into dynamic components of the text.
A critical finding concerns the “multi-layered” interrogatives. Hafez uses these to blend personal lament with social critique. By leaving questions unanswered, he creates an “open text” that allows for multiple interpretations. This linguistic strategy serves as a “safety mechanism” in the political and social climate of his time. The analysis proves that interrogatives are not mere stylistic ornaments. They are essential elements of Hafez’s artistic identity, which allow his poetry to remain relevant and open to new interpretations in modern contexts.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study relies on two theoretical pillars: Speech Act Theory and the Theory of Cohesion and Context. Speech Act Theory (Austin and Searle) explains that interrogatives in Hafez’s poetry are not just grammatical structures; they are actions. We distinguish between locutionary acts (the form), illocutionary acts (the intent), and perlocutionary acts (the effect on the listener). We analyze Hafez’s questions based on their intent—such as directive, expressive, or assertive acts—to reveal hidden meanings like protest or rebuke. This approach links traditional rhetorical concepts with modern linguistic analysis.
The Theory of Cohesion and Context (Halliday and Hasan) helps us understand textual relationships and external influences. We use the concept of “context of situation” (field, mode, tenor) to explain why a specific question in Hafez’s ghazals carries a unique meaning within its social and historical setting. The intersection of these theories leads to the concept of “open texts.” Hafez uses interrogatives to create ambiguity and multi-layered meanings. These questions are not for information-seeking; they are designed to create semantic openness. They force the reader to navigate multiple, contradictory interpretations of a single verse. This flexibility transforms the interrogative from a simple inquiry into a “productive” tool. Here, the question is not an end point but a starting point for infinite interpretations.
This research analyzed 29 types of interrogatives in Hafez’s ghazals using Speech Act Theory and the framework of cohesion. The study demonstrates that these questions are complex tools for communicating secondary meanings, such as protest, regret, and irony, rather than simple inquiries. Our analysis proves that Hafez uses the interrogative structure to manage ambiguity, express emotional contradictions, and create internal tension within the text. The findings confirm that interrogatives play a key role in the structural integrity of the ghazal. They function as dynamic components in the textual fabric, connecting verses and establishing semantic flow. This proves that these questions are not surface-level elements but essential parts of Hafez’s artistic strategy. Hafez’s mastery of these linguistic games gives his poetry philosophical depth and allows for multiple interpretations. Finally, this research validates the use of modern linguistic frameworks in classical Persian poetry and provides a foundation for future studies in rhetorical stylistics.
